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HABITAT SELECTION BY ELK BEFORE AND AFTER WOLF REINTRODUCTION IN YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK
Abstract
Prey species are thought to select habitats to obtain necessary resources while also avoiding predation. We examined whether habitat selection by elk (Cervus elaphus) changed following the reintroduction of wolves (Canis lupus) into Yellowstone National Park in 1995. Using conditional fixed-effects logistic regression to build habitat-selection models, we compared seasonal habitat selection by elk based on weekly elk radiolocations taken in 1985–1990 (without wolves) and 2000–2002 (with wolves). Fire-related habitat changes and climate likely interacted with wolf avoidance in shaping habitat selection by elk. In summer, when wolf activity was centered around dens and rendezvous sites, elk apparently avoided wolves by selecting higher elevations, less open habitat, more burned forest, and, in areas of high wolf density, steeper slopes than they had before wolf reintroduction. In winter, elk did not spatially separate themselves from wolves. Compared to the pre-wolf period, elk selected more open habitats in winter after wolf reintroduction, but did not change their selection of snow water equivalents (SWE) or slope. Elk appear to select habitats that allow them to avoid wolves during summer, but they may rely on other behavioral antipredator strategies, such as grouping, in winter. This study provides evidence that wolves can alter seasonal elk distribution and habitat selection, and demonstrates how the return of wolves to Yellowstone restores important ecosystem processes.
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In the citing paper
“This latter finding is consistent with the observations that elk in Yellowstone do not strongly avoid wolves during winter (Fortin et al. 2005, Mao et al. 2005) and do not avoid foraging on two preferred browse species, willow and aspen, even in high-risk areas of the ecosystem (Creel et al. 2009, Kauffman et al. 2010).”
From Animal migration amid shifting patterns of phenology and predation: lessons from a Yellowstone elk herd (2013) · cites this paper as Mao et al. 2005
In the citing paper
“The ability of elk to mediate predation risk in such a dynamic way may explain why elk do not avoid the riskiest habitat patches (Mao et al. 2005).”
From Landscape heterogeneity shapes predation in a newly restored predator–prey system (2007) · cites this paper as Mao et al. 2005
In the citing paper
“This contention is supported by an NR study evaluating elk habitat selection before and after wolf reintroduction (Mao et al. 2005) that found that elk did not shift their distribution away from wolf territories during winter.”
From Landscape heterogeneity shapes predation in a newly restored predator–prey system (2007) · cites this paper as Mao et al. 2005
In the citing paper
“In fact, wolf territory locations were a positive predictor of elk habitat use (i.e.wolf and elk distributions closely overlap).”
From Landscape heterogeneity shapes predation in a newly restored predator–prey system (2007) · cites this paper as Mao et al. 2005
In the citing paper
“Also, elk increased their winter use of open areas post-wolf reintroduction, despite our finding that such habitats are more risky than forested areas.”
From Landscape heterogeneity shapes predation in a newly restored predator–prey system (2007) · cites this paper as Mao et al. 2005
In the citing paper
“However, we think it is unlikely to be optimal for elk to simply avoid these resources, because many of them provide forage during the critical winter months (Creel et al. 2005;Mao et al. 2005) when NR elk (and other northern ungulates) experience diminishing fat reserves (Cook et al. 2001).”
From Landscape heterogeneity shapes predation in a newly restored predator–prey system (2007) · cites this paper as Mao et al. 2005
In the citing paper
“This need for winter forage most likely explains why elk have not made broad-scale changes in winter habitat selection as a means of avoiding encounters with wolves (Fortin et al. 2005;Mao et al. 2005).”
From Landscape heterogeneity shapes predation in a newly restored predator–prey system (2007) · cites this paper as Mao et al. 2005
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Metadata
- Authors
- MAO, J. S., BOYCE, M. S., SMITH, D. W., SINGER, F. J., VALES, D. J., VORE, J. M., & MERRILL, E. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Alberta (CA)
- Yellowstone National Park (US)
- Colorado State University (US)
- University of Idaho (US)
- Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (US)
- Corresponding author
- MAO, JULIE S.
- VALES, DAVID J.
- Venue
- Journal of Wildlife Management
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2005-10
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1691-1707
- ISSN
- 0022-541X (ISSN-L)
- 1937-2817
- OpenAlex
- W2157553286
- Cited by
- 260
- References
- 92
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 11.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Wildlife Management (publishedVersion)
- BioOne Complete (BioOne) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Rangeland and Wildlife Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
- Keywords
- elk, habitat selection, wolf reintroduction, wolf, red deer, predator-prey interactions, antipredator behavior, seasonal habitat use, burned forest, snow water equivalent, Yellowstone National Park
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